Civilrightsmovement.com offers a comprehensive overview of the American civil rights movement, highlighting pivotal events such as the 1963 Birmingham campaign and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s "Letter from Birmingham Jail." It emphasizes the significance of nonviolent resistance and the moral obligation to challenge unjust laws. The site also details commemorative efforts, including a collaboration between the National Basketball Retired Players Association and Loyola University New Orleans to produce a limited edition print of Dr. King's letter, signed by over 50 former NBA players, to honor the 50th anniversary of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Additionally, the website provides resources on influential figures like Booker T. Washington and George Washington Carver, as well as topics such as women's suffrage and the Congressional evolution of the United States.
The Civil Rights Movement: A Continuation of Abolitionism
The Civil Rights Movement of the mid-20th century was a direct extension of 19th-century abolitionism, aiming to achieve racial equality in the United States through nonviolent protest and legal reform. It was a response to the entrenched systemic racism and segregation that persisted after the abolition of slavery and the failure of Reconstruction to deliver full equality to African Americans. The movement gained momentum following the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954), which declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
Early Strides and Nonviolent Protests
The movement first captured national attention when Rosa Parks was arrested in December 1955 for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger on a Montgomery, Alabama bus. This act of defiance sparked the Montgomery Bus Boycott, led by Martin Luther King, Jr., and Ralph Abernathy. The boycott lasted over a year, severely impacting the bus system and highlighting the power of nonviolent protest to challenge segregationist practices.
In the early 1960s, college students joined the movement through the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), employing tactics such as sit-ins, boycotts, and marches to desegregate public facilities. Inspired by the methods of Mohandas K. Gandhi, activists successfully pressured businesses such as department stores, supermarkets, libraries, and movie theaters to end discriminatory practices. Despite these successes, resistance was fierce, especially in the former Confederate states, where protesters faced violence, arrest, and, in some cases, death.
Birmingham: The Turning Point
In the spring of 1963, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth launched mass protests in Birmingham, Alabama, which King referred to as "the most segregated city in America." Initial demonstrations had little impact until King was arrested on Good Friday. During his week in jail, King responded to criticism from eight clergymen who had published a letter calling his actions "unwise and untimely."
King’s reply, the Letter from Birmingham Jail (April 16, 1963), became a defining text of the Civil Rights Movement. In it, King eloquently defended nonviolent resistance, declaring, "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere," and arguing that individuals have a moral obligation to disobey unjust laws. The letter articulated the urgency of the movement and rejected calls for patience, stating, "We have waited for more than 340 years for our constitutional and God-given rights." [1]
Meanwhile, King’s lieutenant, James Bevel, organized black youths to march in the streets. Beginning in May 1963, children and teenagers participated in what became known as the Children’s Crusade. Birmingham City Commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor responded with brutal tactics, using police dogs and high-pressure fire hoses to disperse the demonstrators. Nearly 1,000 young people were arrested. The violence, broadcast on national television, shocked the nation and galvanized public opinion. President John F. Kennedy sent federal troops to Alabama and accelerated the drafting of a comprehensive civil rights bill.
The March on Washington
The protests in Birmingham set the stage for the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963. Organized by a coalition of civil rights groups known as the "Big Six"—James Farmer (Congress of Racial Equality), Martin Luther King, Jr. (Southern Christian Leadership Conference), John Lewis (SNCC), A. Philip Randolph (Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters), Roy Wilkins (NAACP), and Whitney Young, Jr. (National Urban League)—the march drew more than 200,000 people to the nation’s capital.
The march demanded the passage of meaningful civil rights legislation, the elimination of segregation in public schools, protection for demonstrators against police brutality, a public-works program to create jobs, a $2 per hour minimum wage, and self-governance for the majority-black District of Columbia.
The event’s most memorable moment came when Martin Luther King, Jr., delivered his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial. In it, King envisioned a future where "the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood," and he famously proclaimed, "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: ‘We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.’" [2]
Legislative Milestones
Following the march, President Kennedy’s civil rights bill made progress in Congress but faced opposition from southern legislators. After Kennedy’s assassination on November 22, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson took up the cause. Johnson, leveraging his extensive experience in Congress and bipartisan support, secured the passage of the Civil Rights Act on July 2, 1964.
The Act’s key provisions included:
- Prohibiting discrimination in public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce.
- Outlawing discrimination in employment and creating the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
- Protecting voting rights by eliminating discriminatory voter qualification tests.
- Authorizing the withdrawal of federal funds from programs practicing discrimination.
- Enforcing desegregation in public schools through litigation by the U.S. Attorney General.
The Civil Rights Act marked a historic achievement, addressing many of the movement’s central goals and laying the foundation for further progress in racial equality.
Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement
The Civil Rights Movement reshaped the United States, dismantling the legal framework of segregation and inspiring subsequent movements for social justice. From King’s leadership to the sacrifices of countless activists, the movement demonstrated the power of nonviolent resistance to bring about transformative change.
The movement’s legislative triumphs—culminating in the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965—ensured that African Americans gained the full legal protections of citizenship, even as the struggle for equality and justice continued in other forms. The Civil Rights Movement remains a testament to the enduring fight for human rights and the belief that moral courage can overcome systemic oppression.
Footnotes
[1] Martin Luther King, Jr., "Letter from Birmingham Jail," April 16, 1963.
[2] Martin Luther King, Jr., "I Have a Dream," Speech at the March on Washington, August 28, 1963.
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The National Basketball Retired Players Association (NBRPA), the only alumni association comprised of former NBA, ABA, Harlem Globetrotter and WNBA players, is commemorating the 50th Anniversary of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the 150th Anniversary of the 13th Amendment – in conjunction with the University Honors Program at Loyola University New Orleans and ELEVATE, an academic, athletic and mentoring program for inner-city teens – by issuing a one-of-a-kind limited edition print of Martin Luther King's “Letter from a Birmingham Jail” signed by Dr. King and more than 50 former NBA players. This unique, historic, limited edition print is the perfect collectible for any history and/or sports fanatic. The 1000 special edition “Path to Freedom” prints are only available as a gift, limit one per patron, for tax-deductible donations of $100.00 or more --- NO LONGER AVAILABLE |
July 2, 1964
National Archives and Records Administration and Lyndon B. Johnson Library
The Civil Rights Act of 1964, signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2, 1964, represented a landmark achievement in American legislative history. This sweeping legislation prohibited discrimination in public places, mandated the integration of schools and other public facilities, and made employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin illegal. It was the most comprehensive civil rights legislation since the Reconstruction era, addressing systemic racial inequalities entrenched in American society.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964, signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2, 1964, represented a landmark achievement in American legislative history. This sweeping legislation prohibited discrimination in public places, mandated the integration of schools and other public facilities, and made employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin illegal. It was the most comprehensive civil rights legislation since the Reconstruction era, addressing systemic racial inequalities entrenched in American society.
The Road to Legislation
The impetus for the Civil Rights Act was a nationally televised address delivered by President John F. Kennedy on June 6, 1963. In this speech, Kennedy called on the nation to confront its history of racial injustice, stating, "The rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened." He urged Congress to enact legislation guaranteeing equal treatment for all Americans, irrespective of race. Kennedy's proposal sought to address a range of issues, including voting rights, desegregation of public accommodations and schools, and nondiscrimination in federally assisted programs.
Despite Kennedy’s assassination in November 1963, his vision for civil rights reform persisted. President Lyndon Johnson took up the cause with determination, using his political acumen to navigate the contentious legislative process. Johnson emphasized the moral imperative of the bill, framing its passage as a tribute to Kennedy’s legacy and a necessity for the nation’s progress.
The impetus for the Civil Rights Act was a nationally televised address delivered by President John F. Kennedy on June 6, 1963. In this speech, Kennedy called on the nation to confront its history of racial injustice, stating, "The rights of every man are diminished when the rights of one man are threatened." He urged Congress to enact legislation guaranteeing equal treatment for all Americans, irrespective of race. Kennedy's proposal sought to address a range of issues, including voting rights, desegregation of public accommodations and schools, and nondiscrimination in federally assisted programs.
Despite Kennedy’s assassination in November 1963, his vision for civil rights reform persisted. President Lyndon Johnson took up the cause with determination, using his political acumen to navigate the contentious legislative process. Johnson emphasized the moral imperative of the bill, framing its passage as a tribute to Kennedy’s legacy and a necessity for the nation’s progress.
Provisions of the Act
The Civil Rights Act outlawed segregation in businesses such as theaters, restaurants, and hotels, ensuring that public accommodations were accessible to all. It ended racial segregation in public spaces, including swimming pools, libraries, and schools. Additionally, the act banned discriminatory practices in employment, establishing the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce its provisions. The legislation also prohibited discrimination in any program receiving federal financial assistance, leveraging federal authority to promote equality.
The Civil Rights Act outlawed segregation in businesses such as theaters, restaurants, and hotels, ensuring that public accommodations were accessible to all. It ended racial segregation in public spaces, including swimming pools, libraries, and schools. Additionally, the act banned discriminatory practices in employment, establishing the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to enforce its provisions. The legislation also prohibited discrimination in any program receiving federal financial assistance, leveraging federal authority to promote equality.
Legislative Challenges and Triumphs
The passage of the Civil Rights Act faced significant resistance, particularly from lawmakers in the South. In the House of Representatives, opponents stalled the bill in the House Rules Committee. Meanwhile, in the Senate, a coalition of segregationist senators launched a filibuster in an effort to block the bill. The filibuster, which lasted for 60 days, became one of the longest in Senate history.
Despite these obstacles, supporters of the legislation persevered. In early 1964, House proponents circumvented the Rules Committee by threatening to bring the bill directly to the floor. In the Senate, the filibuster was broken through the combined efforts of Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, who led the floor debate, and Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen of Illinois, whose ability to rally Republican support proved critical. Dirksen famously remarked, "Stronger than all the armies is an idea whose time has come," as he urged his colleagues to back the bill.
President Johnson also played a pivotal role, leveraging his extensive legislative experience and relationships to build bipartisan coalitions. His determination and skillful leadership were instrumental in securing the passage of the act.
The passage of the Civil Rights Act faced significant resistance, particularly from lawmakers in the South. In the House of Representatives, opponents stalled the bill in the House Rules Committee. Meanwhile, in the Senate, a coalition of segregationist senators launched a filibuster in an effort to block the bill. The filibuster, which lasted for 60 days, became one of the longest in Senate history.
Despite these obstacles, supporters of the legislation persevered. In early 1964, House proponents circumvented the Rules Committee by threatening to bring the bill directly to the floor. In the Senate, the filibuster was broken through the combined efforts of Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota, who led the floor debate, and Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen of Illinois, whose ability to rally Republican support proved critical. Dirksen famously remarked, "Stronger than all the armies is an idea whose time has come," as he urged his colleagues to back the bill.
President Johnson also played a pivotal role, leveraging his extensive legislative experience and relationships to build bipartisan coalitions. His determination and skillful leadership were instrumental in securing the passage of the act.
Legacy of the Civil Rights Act
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 marked a turning point in the struggle for racial equality in the United States. By addressing systemic discrimination and segregation, it laid the foundation for subsequent civil rights advancements, including the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The establishment of the EEOC provided an institutional mechanism to combat workplace discrimination, further extending the reach of the legislation.
Although the act did not end racism or discrimination, it represented a significant step toward fulfilling the nation’s promise of equality. It remains a cornerstone of civil rights law, underscoring the federal government’s commitment to justice and equal opportunity for all Americans.
For more information about the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, and related historical documents, visit the National Archives’ Digital Classroom Teaching With Documents Lesson Plan. [1]
Footnote
[1] National Archives, "Teaching With Documents: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission."
A Republican Account
REPUBLICANS PASSED THE FIRST CIVIL RIGHTS ACT, IN 1866
By: Human Events --- 4/17/2012 03:01 PM
Thanks to Republicans beginning to appreciate the heritage of our Grand Old Party, it has become better known that Republicans in Congress supported the 1964 Civil Rights Act much more than did the Democrats. Indeed, the legislator most responsible for breaking the Democrat filibuster was a Republican senator, Everett Dirksen.
And now, the question that should be before us: How did that landmark legislation come to be? The answer to that is a source of pride for all Republicans today.
The origin of the 1964 Civil Rights Act can be traced back to the Reconstruction era. That was when the Republican Party enacted the first civil rights act ever, the 1866 Civil Rights Act. Never heard of it? Democrat history professors would rather you didn’t. With that law, Republicans took a big step toward making Abraham Lincoln’s vision for “a new birth of freedom” a reality.
Ominously, the assassination of the Great Emancipator had left the presidency to his Democrat vice president, Andrew Johnson. Senator Lyman Trumbull (R-IL), co-author of the 13th Amendment banning slavery, also wrote the 1866 Civil Rights Act. Republican support was nearly unanimous, while Democrats were unanimously opposed. This would be the first time Congress overrode a presidential veto of a significant bill.
The law conferred U.S. citizenship on all African-Americans, according them “full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property as is enjoyed by white citizens.” Despite Democrat objections, Republicans made sure African-Americans had the right to own property, engage in business, sign contracts and file lawsuits.
Andrew Johnson refused to enforce this law in the southern states, so it had little effect there. However, many racially discriminatory laws in the North were repealed or struck down as a result.
Sixty-four of eighty Democrats in the House of Representatives had voted against the 13th Amendment. And so, Republicans feared that once the southern states were back in the Union, a Democrat majority along with a racist Democrat in the White House might undo all they had accomplished for African-Americans. What if they repealed the new Civil Rights Act?
To keep that law safe from a future Democrat Congress, Republicans enshrined its precepts in Section 1 of the 14th Amendment. Another point of pride for the GOP is that Republicans voted unanimously for the 14th Amendment, while Democrats voted unanimously against it.
Republicans followed this success with several more civil rights acts during the Ulysses Grant administration, including one that effectively outlawed the Ku Klux Klan. The next step was the brainchild of one of our party’s greatest heroes, Senator Charles Sumner. He wrote the 1875 Civil Rights Act, which anticipated the 1964 Civil Rights Act with its ban on racial discrimination in public accommodations. He had been pushing for the bill for years. On his deathbed, he told a former Attorney General: “You must take care of the civil rights bill – my bill, the civil rights bill – don’t let it fail.”
Though the law came a decade too late to have much of an impact in the Democrat-controlled South, many discriminatory practices in northern states were eliminated. Unfortunately, the Supreme Court ruled it unconstitutional in 1883. The majority opinion declaring that 14th Amendment guarantees did not extend to acts by private citizens and businesses was the reason the 1964 Civil Rights Act would have to be based more tenuously on the federal government’s authority to regulate interstate commerce.
Nine decades would pass before the Republican Party was able to enact further civil rights legislation. President Dwight Eisenhower signed into law the 1957 Civil Rights Act, whose author was a former chairman of the Republican National Committee. Enforcement was improved by the GOP’s 1960 Civil Rights Act.
Three years later, Republican congressmen introduced a bill guaranteeing equal access to public accommodations. The Kennedy administration countered with a weaker version of this bill, which then became the basis for the 1964 Civil Rights Act.
Sadly, it was Democrat defiance of the civil rights movement that postponed so much progress, from 1866 until 1964. To quote my own book, “The more we Republicans know about the history of our party, the more the Democrats will worry about the future of theirs.”
This article is adapted from Back to Basics for the Republican Party, Michael Zak’s history of the GOP from the Republican point of view. See www.grandoldpartisan.com for more information.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 marked a turning point in the struggle for racial equality in the United States. By addressing systemic discrimination and segregation, it laid the foundation for subsequent civil rights advancements, including the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The establishment of the EEOC provided an institutional mechanism to combat workplace discrimination, further extending the reach of the legislation.
Although the act did not end racism or discrimination, it represented a significant step toward fulfilling the nation’s promise of equality. It remains a cornerstone of civil rights law, underscoring the federal government’s commitment to justice and equal opportunity for all Americans.
For more information about the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, and related historical documents, visit the National Archives’ Digital Classroom Teaching With Documents Lesson Plan. [1]
Footnote
[1] National Archives, "Teaching With Documents: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission."
REPUBLICANS PASSED THE FIRST CIVIL RIGHTS ACT, IN 1866
By: Human Events --- 4/17/2012 03:01 PM
A Democratic Account
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National Collegiate Honor’s Council Partners in the Park Class of 2017 at the Benjamin Franklin Museum. Sophia Semensky is holding an American Museum Magazine or Repository of Ancient and Modern Fugitive Pieces, &c., No. 5 May, 1787, Published by Mathew Carey, Philadelphia. The issue is open to the full printing of The Constitution of the Pennsylvania Society, for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, and the Relief of Free Negroes, Unlawfully Held in Bondage: begun in the year 1774, and enlarged on the twenty-third of April, 1787. The Constitution is signed in type Benjamin Franklin, President. This Pamphlet was gifted to Independence Hall National Historic Park by Stanley and Naomi Yavneh Klos in memory fo Eilleen Klos and Kuni Yavneh. – For more information visit our National Park and NCHC Partners in the Park Class of 2017 website |
Teaching With Documents
Court Documents Related to Martin Luther King, Jr., and Memphis Sanitation Workers - Courtesy of the National Archives
Background
Other Resources
Books
Branch, Taylor. Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954-1963. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988.Branch, Taylor. Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963-1965. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998.Carson, Clayborne, et al., eds. The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader: Documents, Speeches, and Firsthand Accounts from the Black Freedom Struggle, 1954-1990. New York: Penguin Books, 1991.Fairclough, Adam. Martin Luther King, Jr. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1995.Garrow, David. Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. New York: William Morrow, 1986.Halberstam, David. The Children. New York: Random House, 1998.Hampton, Henry, and Steve Fayer. Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s. New York: Bantam Books, 1990.King, Martin Luther, Jr. The Autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. Edited by Clayborne Carson. New York: Warner Books, 1998.King, Martin Luther, Jr. The Essential Writings and Speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr. Edited by James Washington. New York: HarperCollins, 1986.Williams, Juan. Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965. New York: Penguin Books, 1987.
Videos and Software
Eyes on the Prize: A History of the Civil Rights Movement (12 one-hour videotapes). ABC Laserdisc.Encarta Africana. Microsoft CD-ROM.
Web Sites
The Web site of the Martin Luther King, Jr., Papers Project at Stanford University (http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/) includes links to biography, articles, chronology, and reference sources about King. This site also has links to key King documents.Celebrating Black History Month on the Web has a site, organized by the University of Colorado, with a broad range of information at http://www-libraries.colorado.edu/ps/gov/us/blackhistory.htm.Civil Rights Museum has an Interactive Tour link at http://www.civilrightsmuseum.org/gallery/movement.aspthat gives a survey of civil rights for African Americans from the colonial period to the present.
Chronology of Major U.S. Civil Rights Laws
and Constitutional Amendments
1. The 13th Amendment to the Constitution (1865)
Description: Ratified on December 6, 1865, the 13th Amendment abolished slavery and involuntary servitude in the United States, except as punishment for a crime. It marked the official end of legal slavery and was the first of the three Reconstruction Amendments aimed at securing civil rights for African Americans.
2. The 14th Amendment to the Constitution (1868)
Description: Ratified on July 9, 1868, the 14th Amendment granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, including formerly enslaved individuals. It guaranteed equal protection under the law and prohibited states from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property without due process. It has since been a cornerstone for many civil rights decisions.
3. The 15th Amendment to the Constitution (1870)
Description: Ratified on February 3, 1870, the 15th Amendment prohibited the federal and state governments from denying citizens the right to vote based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This amendment aimed to enfranchise African American men during Reconstruction.
4. Civil Rights Act of 1875
Description: Enacted on March 1, 1875, this law prohibited racial discrimination in public accommodations, transportation, and jury service. However, it was largely unenforced and declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in The Civil Rights Cases (1883), which limited federal authority over private acts of discrimination.
5. The 19th Amendment to the Constitution (1920)
Description: Ratified on August 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote. This monumental achievement followed decades of activism by the women's suffrage movement and marked a significant expansion of civil rights in the United States.
6. Executive Order 8802 (1941)
Description: Issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 25, 1941, this order prohibited racial discrimination in the defense industry and government employment. It established the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to address workplace discrimination during World War II.
7. Civil Rights Act of 1957
Description: Signed into law on September 9, 1957, this act established the Civil Rights Division within the Department of Justice and empowered federal prosecutors to seek injunctions against voter intimidation or discrimination. It also created the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights to investigate civil rights violations.
8. Civil Rights Act of 1960
Description: Enacted on May 6, 1960, this law strengthened federal oversight of voter registration and established penalties for obstructing voting rights. It sought to address ongoing discrimination in voter access, particularly in the South.
9. The 24th Amendment to the Constitution (1964)
Description: Ratified on January 23, 1964, the 24th Amendment abolished the poll tax in federal elections. Poll taxes had been used to disenfranchise poor and minority voters, particularly African Americans in the South.
10. Civil Rights Act of 1964
Description: Signed into law on July 2, 1964, this landmark legislation prohibited discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and federally funded programs. It established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to address workplace discrimination and authorized federal enforcement of desegregation in schools and public facilities.
11. Voting Rights Act of 1965
Description: Enacted on August 6, 1965, this law outlawed discriminatory practices like literacy tests and poll taxes that were used to disenfranchise African Americans. It also authorized federal oversight of voter registration in areas with a history of discriminatory practices, significantly increasing voter participation among minority groups.
12. Civil Rights Act of 1968 (Fair Housing Act)
Description: Signed on April 11, 1968, this law prohibited discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing based on race, color, religion, or national origin. It was enacted shortly after the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr., in response to widespread racial unrest.
13. Title IX of the Education Amendments (1972)
Description: Enacted on June 23, 1972, Title IX prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in any federally funded education program or activity. It has been particularly impactful in promoting gender equality in sports and educational opportunities.
14. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (1990)
Description: Signed into law on July 26, 1990, the ADA prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in employment, public accommodations, transportation, and other areas of public life. It also requires reasonable accommodations to ensure accessibility.
15. Civil Rights Act of 1991
Description: Enacted on November 21, 1991, this law strengthened provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by providing for damages in cases of intentional employment discrimination. It also clarified standards for proving disparate impact in discrimination cases.
Dad, why are you a Republican?
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Historic Pillars of the Republican Party - GOP Foundational Legislation that Encourages & Safeguards U.S. Public Education, Social Justice, Conservation and Fiscal Responsibility. "Imitation is the sincerest form of change and it reaches its political pinnacle when others, especially the opposition, assert your ideas and laws as their own." - Stan Klos - Please Visit Republicanism.us The Congressional Evolution of the United States of America For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here]. Sept. 5, 1774 to July 1, 1776
Commander-in-Chief United Colonies & States of America George Washington: June 15, 1775 - July 1, 1776 July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
Commander-in-Chief United States of America George Washington: July 2, 1776 - February 28, 1781 Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789
Commander-in-Chief United States of America George Washington: March 2, 1781 - December 23, 1783 Articles of Confederation Congress United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions
Presidents of the United States of America Capitals of the United Colonies and States of America
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